Contents

Introduction: How to Use This Book

Part ONE Parts of Speech
The Subject
The Predicate
Verbs
Action and Linking Verbs
Helping Verbs and Verb Phrases
Verbs in Contractions

Nouns

Common and Proper Nouns
Plural Nouns
Possessive Nouns

Compound Subjects
Compound Verbs
Nouns as Direct Objects
Nouns as Indirect Objects
Pronouns and Antecedents
Personal Pronouns
Pronouns in Contractions

Review of Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns
Adjectives
Predicate Adjectives and Predicate Nouns

Adverbs

Forming Adverbs from Adjectives
Recognizing Adverbs and Adjectives

vii

1
3
7

10
13
16
19

22
24
27
34

38
41
45
48
52
55
58

61

68
72

79
84
86

iii

Review of Adjectives and Adverbs
Prepositions
Prepositional Phrases

Conjunctions
Interjections
Review of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections
Part TWO Sentence Composition
Characteristics of Good Sentences
Comparing Sentences
Writing Sentences
Revising Sentences

Clear, Forceful Sentences
Conciseness (Economy)
Clarity and Specificity
Varying Sentences
Unity

Part THREE Common Usage Errors
Problems with Sentence Structure
Simple Sentences
Compound Sentences
Complex Sentences
Sentence Fragments
Run-on Sentences

Problems with Nouns
Plurals of Nouns
Possessives of Nouns

Problems with Verbs

Using the Correct Tense
Principal Parts of Verbs
Agreement of Subject and Verb
Troublesome Verb Pairs

Problems with Modifiers
Adjectives and Adverbs Confused
Double Negatives
Other Errors
iv

89
94
98

102
108
111
115
116
117
120
121

123
123
126
132
145

149
150
150
151
152
155
164

171
171
172

175
175
177
181
185

189
189
190
191
CONTENTS

Problems with Pronouns

193

Problems with Punctuation

201

Personal Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
End Punctuation
The Comma
Quotation Marks
Punctuating Titles

193
196
198

201
202
209
210

Problems with Capitalization

214

Problems with Spelling

221

In Letters
In Quotations
First Words
Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives
Frequently Misspelled Words
Words Often Confused
Seven Helpful Spelling Rules
Contractions

Part FOUR Basic Paragraph Composition
The Paragraph
A Note About Paragraph Length
Unity in the Paragraph
The Topic Sentence
The Clincher Sentence
Developing a Paragraph with Reasons
Arranging the Reasons
Arranging the Reasons—Another Look

Developing a Paragraph with Examples
Varying Sentence Beginnings
Index

CONTENTS

214
214
214
215

221
223
224
230

231
232
233
235
239
242
244
245
248

249
253
259

v

Introduction
How To Use This Book
Grammar and Usage for Better Writing is a basic workbook that can provide a founda-

tion for further study in English grammar and usage. It will benefit students who are learning the essentials for the first time as well as those who wish to review concepts they have
previously learned. The premise of this book is that understanding how language works
enables us to use it more effectively. This skill can enhance our personal communications,

schoolwork, and professional lives.

The workbook is organized into four major parts. The parts in turn consist of brief
lessons, each with explanations, examples, and practice to ensure that students understand
the concepts being introduced. The book is structured sequentially, with the most basic
elements—the parts of a sentence—introduced in Part One, followed by the composition
of sentences in Part Two. Part Three focuses on some common problems that people encounter when using English, and it places more emphasis on applying the rules. Students
who are new to grammar study should begin with Part One and work through each section
in order; more advanced students who already know the parts of speech may want to start

with Part Two and use the first section for reference.

Once writers learn the parts of sentences and how they work together to determine the
meaning and effect of a sentence, they can begin to understand what good writing is all
about. Part Four is designed to help students make the transition from crafting sentences to
developing good paragraphs, the foundation for most kinds of writing. It serves as an in-

troduction to further study of rhetoric and composition.

Study the rules, review the examples, and look for more examples of good writing in
books, newspapers, magazines, Web sites, and other available sources. Complete the exercises to practice what you have learned, but also remember to apply the rules whenever
you speak and write. The more you use what you learn in this book, the better and more
natural your use of the English language will be. In the end, you will be a stronger, more

effective speaker and writer. You're on your way—good luck!

INTRODUCTION

vii

Part ONE Parts of Speech

In a sentence, a word may play one of eight parts. It may be either
1. a noun,
2. a pronoun,
3. a verb,
4. an adjective,

5. an adverb,
6. a preposition,
7. a conjunction, or
8. an interjection.

These eight parts are known as the parts of speech.

We use the parts of speech to build sentences. For example, if we put together the noun
sunburn and the verb itches, we can make the following statement:
Sunburn itches.
N.
V.
We can expand this statement by adding the adjective my:
My sunburn itches.
N.
V.

ADJ.

We can also add the adverb painfully:
My sunburn itches painfully.
N.
V.
ADV.

ADJ.

If we should want to ask a question, we can begin with a verb. Here is a question made
up of the verb is, the noun sunburn, and the adjective painful.
Is sunburn painful?
N.
ADJ.

V.

1

Of course, we can expand this question. For example, we can add the adverb usually.
Is sunburn usually painful?
V.
N.
ADV.
ADJ.
The system that our language uses to put parts of speech
together into sentences is known as grammar.

The first two lessons focus on the two basic parts of any sentence: the subject and the
predicate.

2

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

Lesson 1

The Subject

A sentence has two parts: (1) a subject and (2) a predicate. This lesson deals with the
subject.
The subject is the part of the sentence about which
something is told or asked.

The seats on the bus are very comfortable.
QUESTION: About what is the sentence telling something?
ANSWER:
The seats on the bus.
SUBJECT:
The seats on the bus.
Amelia Earhart disappeared over the Pacific.
QUESTION: About whom is the sentence telling something?
ANSWER:
Amelia Earhart.
SUBJECT:
Amelia Earhart.
Has your brother Tom found a summer job?
QUESTION: About whom is the sentence asking something?
ANSWER:
your brother Tom.
SUBJECT:
your brother Tom.

Position of the Subject
The subject is usually found at the beginning of the sentence, but it can also appear in
other positions.
SUBJECT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SENTENCE :

An experienced pilot was at the controls at the time of the crash.
SUBJECT AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE:

At the controls at the time of the crash was an experienced pilot.

THE SUBJECT

3

SUBJECT WITHIN THE SENTENCE:

At the time of the crash, an experienced pilot was at the controls.

Finding the Subject
A sure way to find the subject is to answer one or the other of these questions:
• About whom or about what is the sentence saying or asking something?
• Who or what is doing, or has done, or will do something?

4

Question 1:

What is the subject of the following sentence?
The score at the end of the quarter was 12–12.

Procedure:

Ask yourself: “About what is the sentence saying something?”
Obviously, The score at the end of the quarter.

Answer:

The subject is The score at the end of the quarter.
(The subject tells about what the sentence is saying something.)

Question 2:

What is the subject of the following sentence?
The orchestra members tuned their instruments.

Procedure:

Ask yourself: “Who did something?”

Answer:

The subject is The orchestra members.
(The subject tells who did something.)

Question 3:

What is the subject of the following?
Wait outside, please.

Procedure:

Ask yourself: “Who is to wait outside?”

Answer:

The subject is You (understood).
(You) wait outside, please.

Note:

In an imperative sentence (a sentence expressing a command or making a request), the subject You is not expressed but understood.

Question 4:

What is the subject of the following?
Is the door to the basement locked?

Procedure:

Ask yourself: “Is what locked?”

Answer:

The subject is the door to the basement.
(The subject tells about what the sentence is asking something.)

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

EXERCISE 1. Write the subject in the space provided.
Sample:

The apples in the fruit bowl were all sour.
The apples in the fruit bowl
1. Next to the hardware store is a ski shop.

2. Will your father drive us to the game?

3. Is the noise from the next room bothering you?
4. Our math teacher coaches the bowling team.
5. The bowling team is coached by our math teacher.

Simple Subject and Complete Subject
When a subject consists of more than one word, the main
word in that subject is called the simple subject.

The seats on the bus are very comfortable.
SIMPLE SUBJECT:
seats
The simple subject and the words that describe it are together known as the complete subject.
COMPLETE SUBJECT:

The seats on the bus

Question:

Does a simple subject ever consist of more than one word?

Answer:

Yes, especially if it is a name. For example:

The late Amelia Earhart was a pioneer in aviation.
COMPLETE SUBJECT:
SIMPLE SUBJECT:

THE SUBJECT

The late Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart

5

EXERCISE 2. Write the complete subject in the C.S. space and the simple subject in
the S.S. space.
Sample:

The first reporters on the scene did not get all the facts.
C.S.
Hint:

The first reporters on the scene

.

S.S.

reporters

You can be sure that you have correctly chosen the simple subject if you can prove
to yourself that it cannot be omitted. If The, first, and on the scene were omitted
from the C.S., above, the sentence would still make sense. But if reporters
were
omitted, the sentence would not make sense. This proves that reporters is the sim-

ple subject.

1. The famous Mona Lisa is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci.
C.S.

.

S.S.

.

S.S.

2. Did a letter from your sister come this morning?
C.S.

3. Farther up on the hill is a house with white shutters.
C.S.

.

S.S.

.

S.S.

.

S.S.

4. Asleep in the crib was a six-month-old baby.
C.S.
5. My older brother is graduating in June.
C.S.

6

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

Lesson 2

The Predicate

Before we talk about the predicate, remember that
The subject is the part of the sentence about which
something is told or asked.

Prices are higher.
subject

What Is the Predicate?
The predicate is the part of the sentence that tells or asks
something about the subject.

Prices are higher .
predicate

You can easily find the subject and the predicate of a sentence by asking two simple
questions:
Prices are higher.
QUESTION 1: About what is the sentence telling something?
ANSWER:
Prices.
The subject is Prices.
QUESTION 2:

What is the sentence saying about Prices?

ANSWER:

Prices are higher.
The predicate is are higher.

My sister Karen is waiting for us.
QUESTION 1: About whom is the sentence telling something?
ANSWER:
My sister Karen.
The subject is My sister Karen.

T H E P R E D I C AT E

7

QUESTION 2:
ANSWER:

What is the sentence saying about My sister Karen?
My sister Karen is waiting for us.
The predicate is is waiting for us.

Was Andy angry?
QUESTION 1: About whom is the sentence asking something?
ANSWER:
Andy.
The subject is Andy.
QUESTION 2:
ANSWER:

What is the sentence asking about Andy?
Was Andy angry?
The predicate is Was angry.

Position of the Predicate
The predicate usually comes after the subject, but it can also appear in other positions.
PREDICATE AFTER THE SUBJECT:

The parking lot is next to the stadium.
S.

P.

PREDICATE BEFORE THE SUBJECT:

Next to the stadium is the parking lot.
P.

S.

PREDICATE PARTLY BEFORE AND PARTLY AFTER THE SUBJECT:

Is the parking lot next to the stadium?
P.

S.

P.

EXERCISE 1. First draw a single line under the complete subject of the sentence.
Then, above the double line at the right, write the predicate.
Samples:

8

SUBJECT
The temperature dropped suddenly.

PREDICATE
dropped suddenly

Has the plane landed?

Has . . . landed

Under the tree lay many rotting apples.

Under the tree lay

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

1. Has our teacher recovered from the flu?
2. Behind the wheel was my sister Maria.
3. How comfortable these new seats are!
4. Finally, the suspect surrendered to the
police.
5. A flock of seagulls landed on the beach.

EXERCISE 2. Complete the sentence by adding a predicate.
Samples:

The apple

was not ripe.

A speck of dust

flew into my eye.

1. The onion soup

2. Your suede jacket
3. Her new pen
4. The owner of the car
5. My desk at home

T H E P R E D I C AT E

9

Lesson 3

Verbs

The main word in the predicate is called the verb.

Here are a few examples:
1. The temperature dropped rapidly.
PREDICATE: dropped rapidly
VERB:
dropped
2. José often visits exhibits at the natural history museum.
PREDICATE: often visits exhibits at the natural history museum
VERB:
visits
3. Have you no sense?
PREDICATE: Have no sense
VERB:
Have
Without a verb, the predicate cannot tell or ask anything about the subject. For in-

stance, if the verb

dropped is left out of the first sentence above, the resulting sentence

cannot convey any clear meaning:

The temperature. . . rapidly.

10

Question:

Does a verb ever consist of more than one word?

Answer:

Yes, often. A verb may consist of one to four words:
SENTENCE

VERB

They have no questions.

have

Do you have any questions?

Do . . . have

We have been calling John all week.

have been calling

His phone may have been disconnected.

may have been disconnected

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

EXERCISE 1. Find the verb and write it in the blank space.
Samples:

Ben was at the door.

was

They must have been treated badly.

must have been treated

1. Mindy has a lot of friends.
2. The water is boiling in the microwave.
3. I should have listened to you.
4. He must have been pushed by someone
in the crowd.
5. Did the light bother you?

EXERCISE 2. Write the simple subject in the S.S. space, the predicate in the P.
space, and the verb in the V. space.
Samples:

The pond froze during the night.

Wash your hands.

Did you hear the wind?

1. Comb your hair.

S.S.

pond

P.

froze during the night

V.

froze

S.S.

You (understood)

P.

Wash your hands

V.

Wash

S.S.

You

P.

Did hear the wind

V.

Did hear

S.S.
P.
V.

2. The bus will come at any minute.

S.S.
P.
V.

VERBS

11

3. Has it been coming on time lately?

S.S.
P.
V.

4. For some time, light rain has been
falling.

S.S.
P.
V.

5. It must have been raining since dawn.

S.S.
P.
V.

6. In my pocket was the missing glove.

S.S.
P.
V.

7. Fuel bills have been increasing
every year.

S.S.
P.
V.

8. The cold weather has been affecting
the spring crops.

S.S.
P.
V.

9. Does your remote control need fresh
batteries?

S.S.
P.
V.

10. Someone must have taken my books
by mistake.

S.S.
P.
V.

12

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

Action and Linking Verbs
ACTION VERBS
What Is an Action Verb?
An action verb is a verb that expresses action.

There are two kinds of action verbs:
1. Verbs that express physical action—action that can be seen or heard:
The car skidded, left the road, and smashed into a telephone pole.
(Skidded, left, and smashed express physical action.)
2. Verbs that express mental action—action that takes place in the mind and
therefore cannot be seen or heard:
We believed and trusted them because we knew them.
(Believed, trusted, and knew express mental action.)

EXERCISE 1. If the italicized verb expresses physical action, write P in the space
provided. If it expresses mental action, write M.
Samples:

Pat tagged the runner.

P

Did you understand the lesson?

M

1. I forgot the combination.
2. Open a window.
3. Who rang the bell?
4. He considers me his best friend.
5. We are hoping for the best this season.

LINKING VERBS
Not all verbs are action verbs. The verb is in the following sentence does not express
action. It is a linking verb.
Jordan is angry at us.
L.V.

VERBS

13

What Is a Linking Verb?
In the preceding sentence, the verb is has little meaning of its own. Its main function is
to link (connect) Jordan with angry. For this reason, we call is a linking verb.
A linking verb links (connects) the subject with a word in the
predicate that describes or identifies the subject.

miiiij
The road was slippery.
x

L.V.

(Slippery describes the subject road.)
miiiij
Ama is the captain of the volleyball team.
x

L.V.

(Captain identifies the subject Ama.)

What Are Some Common Linking Verbs?
1. The most frequently used linking verb is be, whose forms include the following:
am, are, is, was, were.
Of course, verb phrases ending in be, being, and been are also linking verbs:
will be, would be, are being, have been, could have been, etc.
2. In addition, each of the following verbs can be either an action verb or a linking
verb, depending on the way it is used.
VERB

USED AS ACTION VERB

USED AS LINKING VERB

miiiiij
Fred appeared tired.
miiiiiij
My room becomes messy.
miiij
I feel nervous.
miiiij
The days grow longer.
miiiiij
He looked unhappy.
miiiij
The air smelled salty.
miiiiiij
Her voice sounded hoarse.
x

appear

The principal appeared at 10 a.m.

x

become

The haircut becomes (suits) her.

x

feel

Did you feel the cloth?

x

grow

Farmers grow crops.

x

look

We looked the place over.

x

smell

I smelled smoke.

x

sound

14

Who sounded the alarm?

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

miiiiiij
The soup tasted delicious.
miiiiiij
The weather turned cold.
x

taste

I tasted the soup.

x

turn

She turned the page.

How Can a Linking Verb Be Recognized?
If a verb can be replaced with some form of the verb be, it is a linking verb.
Question 1:

Is feels a linking verb in the following sentence?
Jordan feels angry.

Answer:

We can replace feels with is (a form of the verb be).
Jordan is angry.
Therefore, feels, in the above sentence, is a linking verb.

Question 2:

Is feels a linking verb in the following sentence?
The patient feels pain.

Answer:

In this sentence, we cannot replace feels with is.
Therefore, feels here is not a linking verb. It is an action verb.

Summary:

An action verb expresses action, either physical or mental.
A linking verb connects the subject with a word in the predicate that
describes or identifies the subject.

EXERCISE 2. Is the verb in the sentence an action verb or a linking verb? Write
your answer in the space provided.
Samples:

Nancy broke her arm.

action

Joe looks tired.

linking

1. Today, I feel better.
2. This blouse looks new.
3. I smelled the fish.
4. Mei tasted the melon.
5. Her cookies tasted delicious.

VERBS

15

6. Your voice sounded hoarse.
7. She looked through the whole book.
8. We were exhausted.
9. Courtney looked amazed by the whole event.
10. Did you feel the energy in that room?

Helping Verbs and Verb Phrases
What Is a Helping Verb?
Sometimes a verb consists of more than one word:
The letters have been mailed.
verb

In have been mailed, mailed is the main verb; have and been are helping verbs.
The letters have been mailed.
H.V.

H.V.

M.V.

Helping verbs are verbs that come before and “help” the
main verb.

A main verb may have as many as three helping verbs.
ONE HELPING VERB:

Anne has mailed the letters.
H.V.

TWO HELPING VERBS:

M.V.

The letters have been mailed.
H.V. H.V.

THREE HELPING VERBS:

M.V.

They should have been mailed earlier.
H.V.

H.V.

H.V.

M.V.

What Is a Verb Phrase?
When a verb consists of one or more helping verbs plus a
main verb, it is called a verb phrase.

16

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

HELPING VERB(S)

+

MAIN VERB

has
+ mailed
have been
+ mailed
should have been + mailed

=

VERB PHRASE

= has mailed
= have been mailed
= should have been mailed

Which Verbs Can Be Used as Helping Verbs?
Below is a list of verbs commonly used as helping verbs (note that be, which we studied earlier as a linking verb, page 14, can also be a helping verb):
be, am, are, is,
was, were, being, been

can, could

have, has, had

will, would

do, does, did

shall, should

may, might

must

EXERCISE 1. Indicate the verb phrase, helping verb or verbs, and main verb in each
of the following sentences.
Sample:

Leaves have been falling all week.

V. PHR.

have been falling

H.V.

have been

M.V.

falling

1. The Eagles could have
protested the decision.

V. PHR.

2. You should have seen the mess!

V. PHR.

H.V.
M.V.
H.V.
M.V.

3. I must have left my wallet at home. V. PHR.
H.V.
M.V.
4. Justin has been acting strange
lately.

V. PHR.
H.V.
M.V.

VERBS

17

5. They have played basketball for
two seasons.

V. PHR.
H.V.
M.V.

Word Order in Questions
In questions, we usually put the subject after the first helping verb.
Are tickets being collected?
H.V.

S.

(The subject tickets comes after the first helping verb Are.)

EXERCISE 2. Change the following statements to questions.
Sample:

The tire has been repaired.

Has the tire been repaired?

1. The argument has been settled.
2. Lauren will buy the refreshments.
3. It has been pouring rain all day.
4. We should have waited a bit longer.
5. Our team could have done better.
Reminder: Did you end each of your questions above with a question mark?

Composition Hint
Shorten your verb phrases whenever possible. Avoid wordiness—the use of unnecessary words. Aim for conciseness—brief, uncluttered expression.

18

WORDY:

If you do not run for president, she may run.

CONCISE:

If you do not run for president, she may.
(The main verb run is understood.)

WORDY:

Jim refused to apologize. He should have apologized.

CONCISE:

Jim refused to apologize. He should have.
(The main verb apologized is understood.)
PA R T S O F S P E E C H

WORDY:

They are not being blamed, but I am being blamed.

CONCISE:

They are not being blamed, but I am.
(The helping verb being and the main verb blamed are understood.)

EXERCISE 3. Make each of the following sentences more concise by shortening a
verb phrase.
Sample:

I could have waited, and perhaps I should have waited.
I could have waited, and perhaps I should have.
1. She does not have to go, but I have to go.

2. They were supposed to be paid; they were not paid.
3. If Sharon does not complain, no one else will complain.

4. My word is being questioned, but your word is not being questioned.
5. We did not quit, though we should have quit.

Verbs in Contractions
A contraction is a combination of two words with one or
more letters omitted.

Suppose a friend asks whether you would rather eat lunch at twelve or one. The time
does not matter to you.
What would you say to your friend?
1. It does not matter.
2. It doesn't matter.

VERBS

19

You would probably say:
It doesn't matter.
In informal conversation, we tend to use contractions. For example, we combine does
with not, forming the contraction doesn't.
Note that not, the second word in the contraction, loses the letter o, and in place of that
o we have an apostrophe: doesn't.
In contractions consisting of a verb plus not, not loses an o.
VERB

+

is

+ not =

isn't

o

are

+ not =

aren't

o

wouldn't

o

NOT

would + not =

=

CONTRACTION LETTER(S) OMITTED

In one case, not loses an n and an o:

can

+ not =

can't

no

Finally, learn this irregular (unusual) contraction:
will

+ not =

won't

EXERCISE 1. Write the contraction.
Sample:

have

+ not =

1. has

+ not =

2. must

+ not =

3. can

+ not =

haven't

4. should + not =
5. will

+ not =

Contractions are entirely natural and correct in

informal English (friendly notes,

everyday conversation). However, they are not ordinarily used in formal English (business

letters, letters of application, term papers, reports).

20

PA R T S O F S P E E C H

EXERCISE 2. Change each of the following contractions to formal English.
Samples:

didn't

did not

I've

I have

1. hasn't

6. can't

2. isn't

7. weren't

3. won't

8. you'd

4. I'll

9. wasn't

5. shouldn't

10. it's

The contraction ain't is considered nonstandard. This means that ain't should not be
used in either formal or informal English situations. Avoid it.
INSTEAD OF

USE

I ain't ready.

I'm not ready.
or I am not ready.

Ain't I next?

Am I not next?

They ain't come back.

They haven't come back.
or They have not come back.

VERBS

21

Lesson 4

Nouns

Nouns are words that name persons, animals, places, or
things.
Question 1:

How many nouns are there in the following sentence?
An old fisherman who had no luck hooked a huge fish that pulled his
boat far out to sea.

Answer:

Five.
1. fisherman (a person)
2. luck (a thing)
3. fish (an animal)
4. boat (a thing)
5. sea (a place)

Nouns name things we can see and touch, like boat, as well as things we cannot see or
touch, like luck.
Question 2:

How many nouns does the following sentence contain?
Divers fish for pearls in the Gulf of Mexico.

Answer:

Three.
1. Divers (persons)
2. pearls (things)
3. Gulf of Mexico (a place)

Note that fish, which was a noun in the earlier sentence, is not one here because it does
not name anything. Here, fish is a verb (a word that expresses action).
Question 3:

May a noun consist of more than one word?

Answer:

Yes. Gulf of Mexico is one noun. Nouns of more than one word are
called compound nouns. Here are more examples of compound nouns:
living room
Atlantic Ocean
Grand Central Parkway
Mr. Applebaum
sister-in-law

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PA R T S O F S P E E C H

EXERCISE 1. Look at the italicized word. If it is used as a noun, write N. in the
space provided. If it is used as a verb, write V.
Sample:

a. We always lock the door.

V.

b. Can you open the lock?

N.

1. a. I ate three slices of pizza.
b. This machine slices bread.
2. a. Many birds fly south for the winter.
b. A fly buzzed past my ear.
3. a. You have a great smile.
b. Smile for the camera.
4. a. Oatmeal cooks in a few minutes.
b. Good cooks make delicious meals.
5. a. Please hand me that book.
b. Your hand is bleeding.

EXERCISE 2. List all the nouns in the following sentences.
Samples:

The driver stopped at the post office to mail a package.
driver, post office, package
My soul has grown deep like the rivers. (Langston Hughes)
soul, rivers
1. Fog forced the airport to close.

2. The fleet has left the Indian Ocean.

3. Mrs. Thorpe has invited two sisters and a brother-in-law to her son's graduation.

NOUNS

23

4. Mr. Jones of the Manor Farm had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too
drunk to remember to shut the popholes. (George Orwell)
5. In March, the weather is unsettled, blackbirds return, and trees begin to send out new
leaves.
6. Jamie was in the driveway washing her car with a hose and a few sponges.

7. George went back through the swinging-door into the kitchen and untied Nick and
the cook. (Ernest Hemingway)
8. New York City has a larger population than San Francisco.
9. Have some more beans and rice.

10. Did the team show any signs of improvement in the second quarter?

Common and Proper Nouns
Compare the following sentences:
1. We are approaching a lake.
2. We are approaching Lake Michigan.
In sentence 1, we call lake a common noun. In sentence 2, we call Lake Michigan a
proper noun.

What Is a Proper Noun?
A proper noun refers to one particular person, animal, place,
or thing—like Lake Michigan in sentence 2.

A proper noun is always capitalized.

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PA R T S O F S P E E C H

What Is a Common Noun?
A common noun refers to no particular person, animal,
place, or thing, but to any one at all—like lake in sentence 1.

A common noun is not capitalized.
Here are some more examples of common and proper nouns.
COMMON NOUNS

PROPER NOUNS

day (any day)

Monday

month (any month)

April

bridge (any bridge)

Golden Gate Bridge

ocean (any ocean)

Pacific Ocean

event (any event)

Olympics

magazine (any magazine)

Newsweek

institution (any institution)

Congress

language (any language)

Spanish

boy (any boy)

Jim

girl (any girl)

Brittany

(not capitalized)

(always capitalized)

EXERCISE 1. List the common and proper nouns in the following sentences.
Sample:

Bourbon Street is a lively street in New Orleans.
The Brooklyn Bridge is the oldest bridge over the East River.
COMMON NOUNS:

street

PROPER NOUNS:

Bourbon Street, New Orleans

1. George Washington and Abraham Lincoln were born in February.
COMMON NOUNS:
PROPER NOUNS:

2. Call Adam from the airport as soon as the plane lands in Dallas.
COMMON NOUNS:
PROPER NOUNS:

NOUNS

25

3. Traffic is heavy in both directions on Interstate 99 and the roads feeding into it.
COMMON NOUNS:
PROPER NOUNS:

4. Considerable attention has been given by the press to the pollution of our lakes and
rivers.
COMMON NOUNS:
PROPER NOUNS:

5. Rice University and Baylor College of Medicine are both in Houston.
COMMON NOUNS:
PROPER NOUNS:

EXERCISE 2. Rewrite each sentence, changing the italicized common noun to a
proper noun.
Sample:

An ocean is a vast body of water.
The Pacific Ocean is a vast body of water.
1. A girl was named captain.

2. We will meet outside the restaurant.
3. I saw an accident on the street.
4. Tomorrow is a holiday.
5. A boy asked a question.

6. When are you returning to the city?
7. My father was reading the newspaper.

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PA R T S O F S P E E C H

8. Does the park have tennis courts?

9. We are four miles from the river.
10. I was talking to a neighbor.

Plural Nouns
Nouns have a singular form and a plural form.
The singular is the form that means only one:

boy, girl, soda, hamburger, etc.
The plural is the form that means more than one:

boys, girls, sodas, hamburgers, etc.

EXERCISE 1. Write the form indicated.
Samples:

the plural of window

windows

the singular of kittens

kitten

1. the singular of chairs
2. the plural of passenger
3. the singular of gloves
4. the plural of bandage
5. the plural of tree

NOUNS

27

Here are the singular and plural forms of a few more nouns.
SINGULAR

PLURAL

1. hat

hats

2. box

boxes

3. leaf

leaves

4. foot

feet

(only one)

(more than one)

From the above examples, you can see that ther...